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In the real world, alchemy is a protoscience that aims to: purify base metals into noble metals (traditionally gold, but also silver*1), creating the elixir of life, creating a panacea (able to cure all diseases and illnesses). The philosopher's stone combined these into one, possessing simultaneously the ability to turn metals into gold, grant biological immortality, and allow for rejuvenation (the reservation of aging).
The word alchemy itself has Afro-European origins, coming from the Arabic al-kīmiyā (الكيمياء), meaning The Egyptian Science, which itself derives from Greek. However, three separate versions of “alchemy” exist from across the Afro-Eurasia supercontinent.
煉丹術 (liàndānshù), meaning “method for refining cinnabar*2” stems from China, and focused primarily on immortality, through various elixirs that could purify mind, body, and spirit. 金丹 (jindan) is a pill made by refining base metals into gold. This synthetic gold was believed to have a spiritual value over regular gold, whilst the gold itself was believed to be linked to longevity due to the inert properties of the metal itself, due to not oxidising (weathering) as is the case with other common metals such as iron and copper. Emperor Qun Shi Huang, the first emperor of a unified China (by 221 BC) sought out alchemists to create such a pill for eternal life.
Daoism*3 (or specifically 道教, Daojia) was concerned with the mystical side of Daoism, specifically in regards to alchemy and the creation of an elixir of life. Preceding this was the idea of 五行 (Wuxing), referring to the 5 elements; wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. Zou Yan combined the idea of wuxing along with Yin-Yang in his teachings, and is believed to have written many alchemical books, although no surviving records remain.
In the Harry Potter universe, Dzou Yen (who features on a golden Chocolate Frog Card in the Prisoner of Azkaban video game) was a fourth century BC alchemist, and is the only example of a non-European alchemist*4 in the series.
रसशास्त्र (rasashastra) is the Indian science of alchemy, and translates as “The Science of Mercury”. Similar to Chinese alchemy, it is based on the use of mercury, obtained from cinnabar. Indian alchemy aimed to create a divine body (divya-deham) and immortality (jīvan-mukti).
Buddhists texts from between the second and fifth century refer to transmutation base metals to gold, with Rasaratanakaram being a book by the Indian Alchemist Nagarjunacharya (from the tenth century) that describes the process of converting mercury into gold.
European Alchemy is more well known, mostly due to better documentation and colonial biases in preserving European history over its Asian colonies.
European alchemy comes from Islamic alchemy. Islamic alchemy took the vague experiments of the Greek thinkers, including Plato and Aristotle, such as the Aristotelian idea of elements having four basic qualities (dryness, moistness, hotness, coldness). Jābir ibn Hayyān (eight to ninth century) classifies substances and methods, and uses both theoretical and practical analysis in his works. With the goal of takwin (creating artificial life), he used the aforementioned Aristotelian idea and found that each element would present two of the qualities on the interior, and two on the exterior*5. He theorised the idea of rearranging these qualities to create certain metal. He also developed a system of numerology based on the letters of the arabic name, when transformed, corresponded to its properties.
On the 11th February 1144, Robert of Chester translated Liber de composition alchemiae (Book on the Composition of Alchemy) by Khalid ibn Yazid. This translation noted that alchemy was unknown to Latin Europe, and thus this translation introduced alchemical practices to Medieval Europe. Throughout the twelfth and thirteenth century alchemical progress in Europe was made entirely through translation of Arabic texts.
During the thirteenth century Roger Bacon started alchemical work by summarizing and explaining these translations. During this time, he composed his Opus Majus (Great Work) for Pope Clement IV, in which alchemy featured (alongside astrology) as parts of natural philosophy and theology, and the correspondence between the two links both a restoration of a holy relationship, and the extension of life. The frequency of these topics in the talks show their importance to the Pope.
Summa Perfectionis, by Pseudo-Geber*6, included both practical chemical operations, as well as the traditional mercury theories. Beliefs of the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes became believed by the end of the thirteenth century, suggesting that any changes that happen to substances could have the same change on the human body; purifying a material (e.g. gold) would allow for the purification of the soul*7. The whole of alchemy was based around the purification of the soul, as it would allow a reunification with God
In 1404 Henry IV of England introduced a licence to make gold alchemically, although banned the practice of multiplying metals in the Gold and Silver Act 1403.*8
Around this time, Nicholas Flamel was alive (c 1330 to 22nd March 1418). The Frenchman was a scribe that wrote contracts, letters, and trade, as well as ran a school teaching such trades with his wife (Perenelle). Posthumously*9 he developed a reputation in alchemy, allegedly discovering the philosopher’s stone and achieved immortality*10. He is mentioned in Victor Hugo’s The Hunchback of Notre-Dame as having invented the philosophers stone, and reportedly having hid it in his house. In Harry Potter, he was alive from c1326 to c1992, and successfully invented the philosophers stone (and is the only person known to have done so). The stone allowed for immortality (through creating the elixir of life) and could turn any metal into pure gold. It did not allow for rejuvenation, and the user still aged, and once they reached their maximum life expectancy became dependent on the elixir. During the later years of his life Albus Dumbledore studied alchemy under him.
In the late fifteenth century Marsilio Ficino translated Corpus Hermeticium and many of Plato’s works into latin, thus allowing Europeans to have a full view of the theory. Simultaneously, humanism and neoplatonism shifted the focus of alchemy towards mankind as the alchemical vessel. Cornelius Agrippa’s De Occulta Philosophia merged Judaism’s Kabbalah (a Jewish school of thought in Jewish mysticism, and Hermeticism with alchemy. Paracelsus rejected Agrippa’s occultism, and started moving away from chrysopoeia (the transmutation of metals into gold), instead attempting to use chemicals in medicine. His belief was that sickness and health derived from the balance of minerals in the body, and that illnesses had chemical remedies. In the Harry Potter Universe, Paracelsus*11 existed, and along with being credited for his real world achievements and advancements, is known as the creator of parseltounge.
John Dee, consultant to Elizabeth I, published Monas Hieroglyphica in 1564. The work portrayed alchemy as a supernatural endeavour. In the 17th Century this gained popularity, with support from Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole*12 who believed the philosopher’s stone would be able to communicate and summon angels. Throughout this time many courts hired and paid official alchemists to carry out works for them, most likely due to the prospect of immortality and infinite wealth promised.
During this time as well, chemistry and alchemy became interlinked. Michał Sędziwój both wrote mystical works, but also was the first person to distill oxygen in a lab. Isaac Newton, most known for his physics and maths, spent more time working on alchemy than any other of his ventures.
By the 1740s alchemy and chemistry had become separate, and thus meant alchemy was looked down upon, mostly due to lack of evident progress as shown in other sciences, and that practitioners of alchemy were frauds.
Alchemy is seldom brought up in the Harry Potter universe. The likely explanation of this is due to the complex theory behind it. Given that the classes begin in sixth year, even the introduction is difficult enough to limit itself to NEWT level, and even then (at Hogwarts at least) it is only offered if there is significant interest. The history of alchemy is covered both in Potions and History of Magic, both also at the NEWT level for those subjects. And whilst some elements of potions are often somewhat rooted in alchemy, as commented on when creating an antidote for a blended poison.
It is worth noting that Rowling’s system of alchemy is clearly based off of European Renaissance style Alchemy (in the traditional sense of it, rather than the occult studies, such as of Robert Boyle). Another aspect worth noting is the symbolism of Hagrid and Dumbledore in regards to alchemy. Rubeus and Albus are both derived from alchemical terms (meaning the red, and the white) coming from stages (rubedo, and albedo) in the Magnum Opus - the method for creating the philosopher's stone.