Work Text:
1. Introduction
Taiwan’s achievements in queer rights have been widely praised worldwide. Queer music is an important and unique part of Taiwanese queer culture within popular culture. Previous studies have regarded queer music as merely a part of either Taiwanese popular music or Taiwanese queer culture. While they recognise the unique expressiveness and influence of queer music in today’s digital society, they have not systematically developed a conceptual framework to understand queer music itself and its specific forms of operation. The purpose of this paper is to refine the framework by examining how queer music of different stages and styles reflects the real issues faced by the Taiwanese queer community at different times. It also explores how queer music strengthens community cohesion and identity. It is important to note that the term “queer music” discussed here is broad, including both music beloved by the queer community and music specifically created for them.
The second section of this paper provides an overview of the development of queer music in Taiwan based on Bauman’s (2000) theories of “solid modernity” and “liquid modernity.” The third section analyses the localised concept of tongzhi guoge (同志國歌, queer national anthems), exploring its formation, specific meaning, and current state. Lastly, the fourth section applies the ten characteristics of Western “queer anthems” to categorise the features of Taiwanese queer music into four kinds of conversation: queer individuals with themselves, their partners, the broader public, and the singers. This section explores how queer music facilitates interaction and understanding between the queer community and the whole society.
2. Development of Taiwanese Queer Music
Bauman (2000) introduced the concept of “liquid modernity” in response to the characteristics of contemporary social and cultural life. He argued that the social and cultural traits of the past “solid modernity” were focused on occupying real space, such as military invasion. However, with the rise of mechanical and electronic media, liquid modernity emerged, characterised by speed and flexibility in time—meaning the occupation of distance and immediacy. This concept highlights the role of social media and digital platforms in liquid modernity: they enhance the visibility of minority and marginalised groups once scattered across the globe, helping them find peers and build global networks of identity. Furthermore, Bauman (2011, pp. 19-20) also noted that fashion and pop culture, as social phenomena, have created a dynamic balance by reconciling the dual human needs for belonging and independence. They are always changing, and this change usually becomes stronger as their influence grows.
These insights can explain how social media and the pop culture it spreads play a dynamic role in shaping and solidifying queer identity in Taiwan. Based on Bauman’s concepts and theories, Ji (2017, pp. 410-413) analysed Taiwanese queer modernity. He argued that print and digital media vividly illustrate two forms of modernity. Taiwan’s queer literature, occupying physical space on bookshelves, represents the solid form of queer modernity. In contrast, digital media, which is easily accessible via mobile phones, allows queer modernity to spread fluidly and continuously, even reaching new platforms such as pride parades. Ji’s analysis highlights the transformation of Taiwan’s queer culture media from solid to liquid modernity. However, one of his examples of liquid modernity, pop music, itself experienced a similar shift from solid to liquid forms.
Taiwanese queer music was not always shared and spread online as it is today. Instead, it first appeared in KTVs (Taiwan-style karaoke), dance halls, and gay nightclubs (Wu, 2023, p. 53). These spaces represented what Bauman calls “solid modernity”, providing real, physical places for people to gather. In the 1980s, karaoke technology was introduced to Taiwan from Japan. In 1987, a restaurant in Taipei first combined karaoke with private rooms, creating a space for friends and families to gather. This innovative format quickly became popular, and the number of KTVs across Taiwan increased rapidly, making KTV a vital part of urban life. As a relatively autonomous cultural space, KTV met entertainment needs and created a platform for interaction across classes, ethnicities, and genders (Chen, K., 2002). At the same time, these spaces also aligned with the queer community’s need for gathering places during the early stages of their rights movement. Queer individuals met in KTVs and expressed their personal and shared emotions through the music, which marked the beginning of queer music in Taiwan.
Queer music has evolved through different periods, each with unique features. In the 1990s and early 2000s, during the KTV era, queer music mainly consisted of sad Mandopop songs that the community loved. Until then, nearly no songs were written specifically for the LGBTQ community. Mandopop love songs that queer people liked often originally expressed the sorrows of heterosexual love, such as Karen Mok’s (莫文蔚) He Loves Me Not (他不愛我) or Jeff Chang’s (張信哲) Love Is Like a Tide (愛如潮水). Queer individuals intentionally reinterpreted these songs, projecting their own emotions and experiences into the lyrics (Wu, 2023, p. 60). The singers were also imagined as allies by the queer audience. This reinterpretation became a way for the queer community to seek belonging and express themselves in a heteronormative society.
In 2002, the Taiwan Tongzhi Hotline Association (台灣同志諮詢熱線協會) held the first vote for “Top 10 Queer Love Songs” and “Top 10 Queer Dream Lovers.” Many of these songs and their singers appeared on the lists, attracting attention from the media, the entertainment industry, and the public. This event became the first significant interaction between the general public and the queer community in Taiwan, which helped society have a clearer understanding of the queer community (Department of Civil Affairs, Taipei City Government, 2009, p. 4). Since then, queer music has become an independent and visible part of Taiwanese queer culture, gradually entering the mainstream cultural landscape.
By the late 1990s and early 2000s, pop music created by queer individuals or explicitly related to queer community began to emerge in Taiwan. In 1996, the record label “Hate Pop Music” (恨流行音樂唱片公司) reached out to universities across Taiwan and posted announcements on BBS to gather queer musicians. Together, they produced Taiwan’s first queer-themed pop music compilation, Touch (ㄈㄨˇㄇㄛ) (Chen, G., 2019). This compilation expressed the authentic voices of queer musicians and marked a new phase of self-creation, breaking away from the earlier trend of reinterpreting heterosexual music. Following this, Hate Pop Music collaborated with the then-underground band Mayday (五月天) to release a second queer-themed compilation, Embrace (擁抱), in 1998. The compilation included a donation account for the Taiwan Tongzhi (LGBTQ+) Hotline (台灣同志諮詢熱線) printed at the back of the lyric book (Chen, G., 2019), using music as a medium to support the queer community. Later, the songs were also included in Mayday’s first album in 1999. As Mayday became one of the most popular bands in Taiwan, the queer-themed songs attracted widespread attention. Songs like Embrace and This is Love (愛情的模樣) became queer anthems, ranking 2nd and 9th, respectively, on the “2023 Top 10 Classic LGBTQ-Friendly Songs” list (Daily View, 2023).
Since then, more and more famous Taiwanese singers, such as A-Mei (張惠妹) and Jolin Tsai (蔡依林), began using their music to advocate for the queer community and queer rights. Queer anthems became a distinct branch of Taiwanese pop music. These songs eventually gave rise to the concept of tongzhi guoge (同志國歌, Taiwanese queer anthem), which will be explored in the next section.
Alongside the rise of queer music, Taiwan’s queer movement also grew steadily. In 2004, during the fourth LGBTQ Citizenship Movement, Taiwan held its first Pride Parade (Department of Civil Affairs, Taipei City Government, 2009, p. 4). The parade featured extensive use of rainbow elements representing the queer community and was accompanied by music created specifically for queer individuals. These combinations of visual and auditory expressions created a powerful emotional impact.
To summarise, the development of Taiwanese queer music has transitioned from the reinterpretation of heterosexual songs to the self-creation of music centred on queer identities. In terms of the space, it began with singing in KTVs and evolved into music distributed through albums and streaming platforms, eventually becoming a key element of Pride Parades. This reflects a dynamic interaction between the solid modernity of physical queer spaces and the liquid modernity of queer music spreading across time and platforms. Queer music is a microcosm of Taiwanese queer culture. It bears witness to how queer individuals have moved from seeking hidden spaces in mainstream society to gradually presenting themselves in the public eye and finally establishing an independent and proud identity.
3. Formation of the Concept of Tongzhi Guoge
Queer anthems are a popular subset of queer music. In Taiwan, this concept has localisation, forming the idea of tongzhi gouge (同志國歌), which serves as a signature of Taiwanese queer music (Wu, 2023, p. 54). The formation of this concept not only documents the development of Taiwanese queer music but also highlights the unique cultural identity of Taiwan's queer community.
First, the term tongzhi guoge itself reflects the uniqueness of Taiwanese queer culture. The word tongzhi (comrade) was originally a term used among members of the Chinese Communist Party (Rigger, 2011, p. 38). The term was popularized in 1989 by Edward Lam (林奕華), an organiser of the Hong Kong Lesbian and Gay Film Festival (香港同志影展), to describe individuals who challenge traditional binary norms of sexuality and gender. It was introduced to Taiwan in 1992 during the Taipei Golden Horse Film Festival (台灣金馬國際影展) as xin tongzhi dianying (新同志電影, New Queer Cinema) and has since become a widely recognised term for queer individuals (Lim, 2008, pp. 237-238). In this new context, the term is playful and subversive (Rigger, 2011, p. 38). It symbolises a sense of revolutionary camaraderie among the Taiwanese queer community, representing their courage to unite against mainstream oppression and challenge societal inequalities.
If analysed further, tong in Chinese refers to “same”, while zhi refers to “aspiration.” Thus, tongzhi can be understood as representing individuals with shared aspirations. As Lim (2008, pp. 238-240) notes, “queer” is fundamentally centred on differences, while tongzhi highlights shared will and similarity. Due to its positive cultural associations and gender neutrality, tongzhi has successfully subverted the pathologisation or stigmatisation of related groups in earlier Chinese terminology. The second part of the term, guoge, translates to “national anthem.” The Taiwanese queer community has had the characteristic of self-nationalization for a long time. Chu (2000) analysed this phenomenon, suggesting that the construction of a “nation” (guo) of queer serves as a rhetorical metaphor for an imagined community. This concept helps unify queer individuals and groups who are often isolated and scattered across the island (Chu, 2000, p. 114). Such a community is usually defined by a shared sense of belonging, strong emotional bonds, and deep, equal queer love (Anderson, 2016, p. 14). This emotional connection has been strengthened with the development of the Internet and media. Chu (2000, p. 128) also emphasised that the queer “nation” is not meant to evoke nationalism or macro-political identities that oppose others. Instead, it represents a fundamental unit of autonomy, akin to sovereign power, where the will of the group can be expressed, and resistance to external oppression is possible.
The construction of this queer “nation” in Taiwan has shared similarities with the historical development of Taiwanese collective identity. After the lifting of martial law, more Taiwanese people began to resist external oppression and emphasise sovereignty and self-determination. As the same, the Taiwanese queer community initially focused on resisting heteronormative assimilation but has then shifted to emphasising self-expression and visibility. At the same time, as China continues to impose restrictive policies on the queer community, Taiwanese queers have skillfully and flexibly used various platforms to voice their perspectives, highlighting the diversity, freedom, and equality in Taiwan’s society. To avoid falling into the hard living environment of queer people in China, Taiwan’s society has also used this as a topic to call on the internal queer community and other people on the island to support Taiwan independence (Chen, Y., 2021, p. 9). Therefore, the construction and application of the queer “nation” concept in various cultural forms demonstrate both a playful reference to political nationalism and a deep connection to Taiwan’s unique social and historical context.
In its specific manifestations, the Taiwanese queer “nation” first appeared in print media. For example, Pai Hsien-yung’s (白先勇) famous Taiwanese queer literature Crystal Boys (孽子) describes a queer nation based on Taipei’s New Park, which quietly gathered a large population of homosexual individuals (Ji, 2017, pp. 250-251). Similarly, the “federation” concept was constructed in Homosexual
Federation (同性戀聯邦), a publication by Taiwan’s first gay activist group, the NTU GayChat (台大男同性戀社), in the 1990s (Chu, 2000, p. 107). Additionally, past news reports often referred to the queer community using the term “dark kingdom” (黑暗國度, Wu, 2023, p. 59). These images of the queer nation constructed by the public and the media became widely known.
With the release of songs specifically written for the queer community, like Mayday’s Embrace, the idea of a tongzhi guoge finally began to take root in pop music. With the development of societal ideologies and consumerism, news coverage of tongzhi guoge became increasingly popular during the 2000s (Wu, 2023, p. 64). Thanks to the widespread influence of pop culture and the continuous rise of queer movements, these anthems became more and more impressive in the society.
The two tables above respectively show the results of Taiwan’s “2003 Top 10 LGBTQ Love Songs” (Table 1) and the “2023 Top 10 Classic LGBTQ-Friendly Songs” (Table 2). All ten songs on the 2003 list are “conventional” songs, typically centred around heterosexual love. However, in the 2023 list, the top 9 songs directly draw inspiration from or address themes related to the queer community, narrating personal experiences or reflecting the realities of queer lives. The 10th song, Rose Colored (玫瑰色的你), written by Deserts Xuan (張懸), was inspired by Taiwan’s various social movements and dedicated to frontline activists, aiming to awaken greater civic awareness (Eric and Hung, 2018).
Separated by 20 years, the comparison between these two lists demonstrates that the queer community has moved beyond reinterpreting heterosexual songs to express themselves. They now have tongzhi guoge, which is genuinely rooted in their community. It is also through these dedicated songs that a broader audience can learn about the authentic stories of the queer community through music. In other words, while an increasingly open and diverse society has fostered the consolidation of queer identities and the popularity of queer anthems, these songs, in turn, have influenced reality, helping to promote further awareness and acceptance of queer rights.
4. Characteristics of Taiwanese Queer Music
Taiwanese queer music, especially tongzhi guoge, shares similarities with Western “queer anthems” in certain characteristics. However, its expressions are closely related to the realities of the Taiwanese queer community. In Queer, the concept of queer anthems is categorised into ten points, including the promotion of solidarity within the community (Gage et al., 2002, pp. 26–27), as explored above. Taiwanese queer music can be further divided into four kinds of conversation and interaction: conversation with the self, conversation with partners, conversation with the public, and conversation with the singers. This section will use several songs from the 2023 Top 10 Classic Queer-Friendly Songs (Table 2) to analyse.
First, Taiwanese queer music guides the community to accept and express selfidentity and pride. As Hall (1993, p. 114) suggests, popular culture represents not only who we are and what we have experienced but also what we aspire to become. Taiwanese queer music records the past and present struggles of the queer community while expressing hopes for the future. For instance, Jolin Tsai’s Womxnly (玫瑰少年) draws inspiration from the real story of Yeh Yung-chih (葉永鋕), a student from southern Taiwan. Yeh was bullied for his “femininity” and avoided using the restroom during breaks because of fear. However, in 2000, Yeh was found dead in the restroom alone. It is considered that the gender-unfriendly environment forced Yeh into isolation and delayed his rescue after the incident (Xu, 2021). Following Yeh’s case, Taiwan amended the Gender Equity Education Act (性別平等教育法), expanding to include gender expression, sexual orientation, and gender identity (Xu, 2021). Yeh’s story remains a critical chapter in Taiwan’s gender equality education and is a collective memory for Taiwan's queer community.
The term “Womxnly” was deliberately chosen to include marginalised and intersectional groups, such as transgender “women” (Tham, 2019). In the lyrics (Tsai, 2018), “The boy with a rose blooms vividly in my heart, a legendary story” (玫瑰少年在我心裡，綻放著鮮豔的傳奇), the collective memory of marginalisation and exclusion of the queer community is recalled and reinforced. Besides, the song also urges the queer community to turn painful experiences into strength. Lyrics like “Born as human, there is no guilt, you need not apologise” (生而為人無罪，你不需要抱歉) remind queer individuals not to blame themselves but to embrace their unique gender identity or sexual orientation. Furthermore, “The best revenge is being beautiful; the most beautiful bloom is rebellion” (最好的報復是美麗，最美的盛開是反擊) awakens the spirit of resistance and calls for proudly showing one’s uniqueness. Such music resonates deeply with the queer community.
Additionally, queer music often portrays conversations between two lovers, such as highlighting the challenges and realities faced by same-sex couples. These songs express the promise of love and hope for a better future despite present societal constraints. A typical example is SEA You Soon (飄洋過海來看你, Leong and Ai, 2020), a cover song supporting transnational same-sex marriage. The title reflects the difficulties of marriage across oceans while expressing hope for future recognition of transnational same-sex marriage. The lyrics contrast “strange cities” (陌生的城市) with “familiar corners” (熟悉的角落), symbolising the separation faced by transnational same-sex couples who love each other but cannot live together.
Since the song’s release, the situation has improved significantly. In January 2023, Taiwan’s Executive Yuan announced that same-sex marriage would no longer be restricted by nationality. Foreign partners, regardless of whether their home countries recognise same-sex marriage, can now register under Taiwan’s same-sex marriage law. Even for couples from Taiwan and China, the Mainland Affairs Council declared in September 2024 that same-sex marriage is permitted, provided a thirdcountry marriage certificate is obtained for registration in Taiwan. However, as the registration process remains complex, “transnational same-sex marriage” is still one of three key “future goals” alongside “joint adoption” and “artificial reproduction” on the website of Equal Love Taiwan (2024). The inclusion of SEA You Soon in the 2023 Top 10 Classic Queer-Friendly Songs also highlights the ongoing significance of transnational same-sex marriage as a major issue for Taiwan's queer community.
Building on themes of self-acceptance and love, queer music also sends messages to the broader public, encouraging participation in creating a queer-friendly society and achieving further equality and respect. The public, in turn, would support queer rights movements through such music. For instance, Mayday’s (1999) The Shape of Love (愛情的模樣) includes lyrics like “Within the same body, there is the same feeling oflove and being loved” (在一樣的身體裡面，一樣有愛與被愛的感覺). These lyrics emphasise that despite differences in sexual orientation, whether heterosexual or homosexual, people all experience the feelings of love and being loved equally. In other words, it suggests that all love is equal and free regardless of its nature.
Moreover, Taiwanese artists who create and perform queer music play crucial roles. Some songs are chosen as themes for Pride Parades, and many artists also actively participate in queer rights movements. Through their music and actions, these singers build deep connections with the queer community, especially among gay men, becoming gay icons (Xu, 2021). An example is A-Mei, known for her song Rainbow (彩虹). She was the first Rainbow Ambassador (彩虹大使) for the Taiwan Pride Parade. In 2012, during heated debates over the marriage equality bill, she held a selffunded concert, “Love Is the Only Way” (愛是唯一), to support the movement. Moreover, the sight of a big rainbow flag raised during her concert has also become a signature element of her performances (Lai, pp. 113–114).
As for why gay icons are often female artists, it may also be related to the complex gender structure of Taiwanese society. Patriarchal systems have historically shaped Taiwan’s social relations, allocating privileges like inheritance mainly to men (Brainer, 2019, p. 43). Gay men, who face marginalisation in heteronormative society, may relate their own dilemmas to women’s struggles in a male-dominated society. Successful female singers achieve significant career achievements while giving support to marginalised groups. They show their confidence and strength. Meanwhile, their inspiring music, blending yanggang (陽剛, masculine) and yinrou (陰柔, gentleness), challenges traditional binary gender roles (Wu, 2023, p. 72). Therefore, such music by female singers also inspires gay men to break stereotypes tied to masculinity and embrace their true identities.
5. Conclusion
Taiwanese queer music has played a significant role in shaping and reflecting the identity of the queer community. It moved from physical spaces like KTVs to digital platforms, allowing it to reach more people. This kind of music evolved from interpreting mainstream songs to creating original queer anthems, becoming an important part of Taiwanese queer culture. Through this process, queer music has provided a space for self-expression and built community solidarity. The concept of tongzhi guoge emphasises the unique, localised identity of the Taiwanese queer community within Taiwan’s historical and cultural contexts. Furthermore, Taiwanese queer music helps establish connections among queer individuals, queer couples, the general public, and the artists themselves. This paper argues that such songs encourage queer individuals to accept and express themselves, while also strengthening emotional bonds between queer partners. Ultimately, these songs contribute to the creation of a collective memory within the queer community, reflecting their shared experiences of overcoming past and present challenges. At the same time, under the leadership of the pop artists, an increasing number of people develop emotional connections with the queer community through music, offering support and participating in the movement for queer rights. These pop artists have thus become important and intimate companies of the queer community.
In conclusion, Taiwanese queer music reflects the journey of the queer community from hidden spaces to public recognition. It has helped to increase visibility, strengthen identity, and promote equality. These songs continue to inspire people and play an important role in advocating for queer rights in Taiwan. By connecting personal experiences with social change, queer music has become a symbol of pride and diversity in Taiwanese society.
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